Derek O'Brien

Derek O'Brien (MPhil Candidate)

The importation of building and other stone into Ireland c.1142–1400

Supervisor: Dr. Colin Rynne
Post-Medieval and Later Historical Archaeology Research Group

The principal research aims of this thesis will be to reassess the importation and trade of oolithic limestone used for architectural work, millstones and other material objects from Normandy and the south and west coast of Britain. The primary sources for this research will be from the archaeological record, historical data and with the aid of field survey work. The only complete review of this topic was published in 1970 by D. M. Waterman in a paper titled ‘Somersetshire and other foreign building stone in medieval Ireland c. 1175-1400’. In the interim, archaeological excavation and survey has doubled this list.

Examples of imported stone have been identified from St. Multose’s in Kinsale Co. Cork to the former site of the Dominican priory in Trim in Co. Meath, where many pieces of Purbeck marble were discovered during excavation in 2012-13. The distribution of imported stone and where it was utilized throughout the period c.1142–1400 according to Waterman’s paper comprised of forty two examples, mostly churches and monasteries, but also included castles in addition to effigies and fonts. This number has now doubled due to the various excavations that have taken place since the 1970s. Domestic material such as mortars and stone lamps can now be added to the list, in addition to more evidence of ecclesiastical structures. All known examples of imported oolithic limestone are situated on the south and east coast of the country and only one example has been identified from the west. This example is from Tralee, Co. Kerry, where oolithic limestone was partially used around some of the openings of an eighteenth-nineteenth century tannery.

Imported stone used in architectural work for both religious and secular buildings in Ireland began in the years following the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland. Oolithic limestones from England and France were formed in marine shoals where the fluctuating wave action caused the build-up of calcium carbonate around shell fragments and sand grains to form small spheres or ooliths. Jurassic limestone from England and France was much easier to carve then Irish Carboniferous limestone and it was used in the fine detail in medieval buildings, becoming a standard material for complicated window and door mouldings, which was for a time a movement away from local sandstone. The use of foreign stone may have been a reflection of the wealth of a particular monastery or of a generous benefactor or patron indeed it may also have been a cultural preference of the Anglo-Normans, displaying their hierarchy in both ecclesiastical construction and military defence.

Economic factors have always been important and of these the cost of transport is likely to have been the greatest. At a time when well-built roads were few, the movement of heavy goods must have been relatively difficult and expensive, and the transport of bulky materials was largely by waterways. In terms of the mass production of architectural stone for export, evidence exists in late eleventh century Britain for the importation of ready-made cushion capitals to Canterbury from the quarries at Caen. It is possible therefore, that template stones such as window mouldings for example may have been imported ready cut to Ireland, or at least ready marked out. Perhaps both carved and un-carved pieces of oolithic limestone were shipped to Ireland. A further aspect of this research will be to acquire information for both examples if possible. In addition to this what type of transports were used, from the quarry to its arrival on site will also be looked at.

This research will also examine the concept of schools of masons evidenced by mason marks. This will be carry out to try and establish if a certain mason was associated with the construction of a sister monastery in England, as well as working in Ireland. In addition to mason marks, the status and work methods of the mason, the background into their development of certain skills, as well as various types of construction tools and building techniques will also be looked at.The master mason was the central figure in the whole process of building in stone, from the cutting of stone at the quarry to the placing of the stone in the structure. The trade in stone will also include merchants, their associated guilds, and the structure of trade in general betweenIreland, Britain and France.

The re-use of imported stone is very common amongst the examples known in Ireland. One of the best examples of re-use is at Christ Church, where many of the twelfth and thirteenth century pieces of oolithic limestone were re-used in the nineteenth century renovations. Another example of re-use discovered during the South Main Street excavation in Cork, is a fragment of moulded Dundry stone which formed part of a segmental arch over a rounded headed window. This piece could be related to the Dominican priory for example;however it would be futile to speculate where in fact it came from due to the many notable buildings that once stood within the medieval town of Cork. It may also be possible that the example in Tralee maybe connected to the Dominican priory that once stood in the town. The re-use of stone in later periods including the movement of stone from one site to another must be taken into account in considering the primary distribution patterns.

In addition to the architectural stone and domestic artefacts there are also examples of French and Welsh stone which were used in the manufacture of millstones, and evidence for Welsh millstones have been documented at Ardee in Co. Louth. There is evidence of importing millstones to Dublin from Anglesea and Monmouthshire, and the Anglo-Normans also imported burr-stones from La Ferté-sous-Jouarre and Bergerao near Paris. Despite the ubiquity of watermills in early medieval Ireland, the grinding of grain by hand, using quern stones, remained commonplace. This changed with the introduction of feudalism into Ireland under the Anglo-Normans, when grain had to be ground at designated mills, which became a significant source of income for the ecclesiastical and territorial lords who monopolized the manufacture of flour until the close of the Middle Ages. The choice of stone for milling was a cultural preference for the Anglo-Normans as they produced finer flour than what had been produced before. The introduction of Anglo-Norman milling and agricultural technology from the late twelfth century onwards brought about a verity of changes both in the economy and in the dietary needs of the native Irish.

To achieve these goals this research will first bring together the available archaeological information regarding the various areas in which examples of imported stone have been identified. Subsequent to this, the sites in which the various stone types have been identified will be visited as well as the many museums that house numerous examples. This will be followed by listing any fragment of stone, and record whether it was part of a window moulding of a church or a domestic piece such as a mortar. In the case of buildings, tomb-slabs and effigies, comparisons will be made with those in Britain and France. The geology of the imported stone will also be recorded, this will be to show from what quarry the stone originated, whether Dundry or Purbeck for example. Also, if it is possible, samples will be taken of oolithic limestone from Duiske abbey for example and compare it with a piece discovered from the Dominican priory in Cork, to see if the quality of stone is similar. This will lead then to who was importing the stone and from where, what the stone was used for, where it is mostly found i.e. what county has the most examples, and who was related to these sites whether Anglo-Norman, a particular religious order, or indeed if they were of native Irish patronage.

The overall aim of this research will be to expand on the existing knowledge of the importation of stone to Ireland c.1142–1400. The structure of trade between Ireland and England during this time will also be examined, as the growth of trade and the growth of towns within Ireland, England and Europe were two interconnected phenomena from the twelfth century onwards. The process of colonisation should be seen in the context of the migratory movements of both military aristocracies and peasant populations across Europe as a whole in the twelfth century. The research will also seek to place the examples of stone in their social and economic contexts and even a military context and to identify the impact of the monumental construction of castles, churches and cathedrals had on Irish society under the Anglo-Normans.