The topic of this publication, minority groups' access to and participation in higher education, echoes concerns at primary level. A buzz word there for some time in relation to Travellers has been integration; now it is joined by the term 'cultural celebration'. The mistakes and developments at primary level are worth examining, both for what they offer to those reflecting on the need for change at other levels and because the failures at this level are part of the reason why many people have difficulty accessing second and third level provision.
This paper is based on my teaching experience at primary level and on my research into Travellers' performance in second-level schools.1 The history of specialist school provision for Travellers clearly illustrates the need to educate the educators at all levels. I will outline this and comment on separate versus integrated provision, and examine in more detail the kinds of curriculum changes that I believe are crucial to effective anti-racist practice. I will comment on affirmative action in relation to opening up access for members of minorities to higher education. Finally, I will discuss training for teachers at all levels. Because my experience and research has been in the field of Traveller education, I will mainly talk about this minority, but the principles apply across the board to education and all minorities.
The 1963 Government Report on 'Itinerancy'2 marked the initiation of special classes for Traveller children, assumed to be a temporary remedial intervention that would result in 'absorption' into the 'normal' school system. In 1970 when the Department of Education responded to the 1963 document,3 special classes were multiplying. This report defined Travellers as a deprived, educationally backward group and advocated compensatory intervention to aid 'integration'. Here the word is first used officially, but the meaning is the old one. The system into which the child will be integrated is not under pressure to change; there is no mention of Traveller culture or of diversity in society - though preparation for a society enriched by diversity is mentioned as an aim for primary education in Curaclam na Bunscoile.4 The focus at this stage was on what might euphemistically be called 'social training' (this was the era of special provision of washing facilities for Travellers in schools). As time passed, special classes proved relatively permanent but there was a gradual move towards integration. In 1989, the Department reported5 that one third of Travellers were fully integrated, one third were integrated but receiving special support and one third remained in separate provision. The need for access to second level is mentioned from the first report onwards, but third level does not feature until the Task Force Report 1995.6 This report notes that Travellers' antipathy to second level schooling is a block to their progress into third level. The need to make second level attractive, and the need for a further effort to transmit basic skills which were not effectively acquired in first level resulted in the opening of alternative units known as Junior Training Centres (now called Junior Education Centres): there are now eleven of these.
Since the 1980s, increasingly strong voices were to be heard among Travellers and among special class teachers asserting Travellers' cultural distinctness. Many recognised the cultural dangers inherent in bringing children of a devalued minority into an education system designed to transmit the values of the majority.7 Nonetheless schooling was seen as a good thing for Travellers. In 1985, the Department circulated a draft curriculum for Travellers.8 This document, which was allowed to drift into oblivion, was unresearched and really comprised no more than a collection of ideas for use in special classes. However, it fuelled a debate among teachers of Travellers which focused on the need to provide rich, culturally appropriate materials and to get away from the deprivation framework for viewing learning needs in special classes. Developments in the wider arena - activities of new Traveller rights groups such as Minceir Misli, Pavee Point and the Irish Travellers' Movement - empowered Travellers' already vocal criticisms of special provision by backing it with analysis and research (the ITM policy document9 was an important outcome). Among teachers, the development of a new understanding of education of this minority led to the INTO policy document on Traveller education.10 Now in-career training for primary teachers increasingly addresses issues of ethnicity, anti-racism and interculturalism.
Despite greater understanding of Traveller culture, however, integration still effectively means absorption in many educational institutions because the conceptual assumptions of the dominant system remain unquestioned. At second level, the dichotomy between special provision and mainstream is severe: the two systems are totally separate, so cross-fertilisation and flexible integration are difficult if not impossible. Insights are shared more easily where specialist and mainstream share the same premises - one lesson for providers of alternative provision at other levels. Both the biased system and the resistant Traveller must be called to challenging debate. Integration in an intercultural anti-racist system is essential to the development of mutual respect and understanding among all sectors of the school population, and the well run integrated school is also the only context in which minorities can truly know themselves to be of equal worth with children of the majority. However, it must be noted that almost all teacher advocates of Travellers' right to recognition of their identity worked in special provision - an indicator of how little true integration is happening, but also an indicator of the insights intense concentration in a specialist situation can yield.
So separate provision can play a role. Before turning to discuss my research I will risk showing my bias by commenting on my experience as Principal of a separate all-Travellers' school. The Irish Constitution and Department of Education structures allow for some minority interest groups who can prove viability to have their school of choice. Broader cultural concerns are not the main issue in warranting such variety; National Schools are denominational, so equity demands that adherents of minority religions have the same provision as obtains for adherents of the majority one. Thus we have Jewish and Protestant schools; recently Muslim and multi-denominational schools have emerged. Religion is not the only distinctive factor; broader cultural distinctiveness also shapes this separate provision, and provision for scoileanna lán Gaelach11 expands the idea of separate schooling to the linguistic domain. With this freedom, why should Travellers not have their minority interest schools if they so wish? While I hope that such minority interest schools would be the exception rather than the rule, I argue that they have a role to play. Provided that they are thoroughly theorised and constantly reviewed, they can be the leaven in the dough so to speak, contributing rich insights into how minority cultures can contribute to the classroom, and clarifying how to meet the specific needs of any such group. These insights can be taken into intercultural practice in the mainstream. In relation to Travellers, such insights are necessary. The term 'Traveller culture' is often used as a euphemism for disruptiveness, neediness and learning difficulty. Our school proves that Traveller children's distinctiveness and even their learning needs cannot be thus written off; their achievements challenge diminished and devalued uses of terms like 'culture'. However, such schools must remain few. As noted above, if it was the norm that minorities were absent from mainstream classrooms, the majority would lose the opportunity to critique its own identify, its culture, its dominance practices. And the minority, however well educated in separate institutions, would never experience in regular practice that they have the right to sit as equals with the majority.
My research was sparked by the puzzling gap between what Travellers say they want from school and their school performance. I chose to examine this in a second-level setting because in the discourse relating to schooling for adolescents, cultural issues are still very much to the fore whereas the standard terms of reference for primary schooling have been internalised more fully. I conducted the field work in alternative second-level units for Travellers, seeking to identify around what the children in these units constructed their resistance. I found that they constructed it around ethnic identity, but that, like the working class lads in Willis' study,12 the Travellers' resistance contained much that was deeply regressive. I set the children's resistance practices in the context of Travellers' historic resistance to the exclusionary practices of the dominant population. I traced this historic resistance in what I called the 'discursive domain' of Travellers from 1960 to 1995, showing how speakers from the Traveller, settled, academic and official strands interacted and how practices - including those of children in the classroom - looped back into official discourse, producing transformations and reinforcements. Resistance has been part of Traveller culture for generations; had they not resisted, they would not be here. Travellers developed strategies of accommodation, of escape, of straight opposition to the agenda of the dominant society, and their practices of self-maintenance became private. These methods have served them well; but some of them are also self-damaging. Centuries of experience of racism can lead to an ambivalently held social self-identity. The self-damage varies from person to person, group to group. Some children in the classroom display dangerously low levels of self-confidence; others have a strong, positive personal and social self-identity. The teacher must ask: what enables the strong to transcend racism, to thrive in spite of it; and how can the weak be empowered to do likewise?
Many Traveller children succeed in school; but from my experience, I would argue that the performance of the children in this study is not unique to them; just as racism affects Travellers' health status, it also affects their educational status. People can develop what I call structurally produced learning difficulties, outcomes of the experience of racist exclusion and downgrading. These difficulties are not innate but can be very difficult to address. Other marginalised groups share this experience: for instance, the internalised 'glass ceiling' can push women to self-limit, self-exclude, do patriarchy's work for it. The children's performance in this school was worthy of study because it revealed how racism can impact on children's social self-concept and learning capacities. The children's sense of identity was vitiated by lack of confidence, by a sense of themselves as helpless victims. Through strategies of ineptitude and outcries of oppression, they kept the level of work they did well below their ability level: they succeeded in failing, and the teachers' efforts to challenge this had limited success. They exemplified that racism can produce ambivalence in social self-identity and damage educational attainment.13 Even when the too crude theories of 'self-hatred' as a characteristic of minority groups is dismissed, evidence of the impact of racism remains to be discussed, within more acceptable frames such as 'conflictual identities'.14 The education system must respond to this phenomenon through what is offered by the schools to counteract racism, and through appropriate teacher training.
In the Task Force Report15 Travellers are de facto recognised as an ethnic group, with the right to have their specific needs met, the right to equal opportunity without loss of identity. Professionals and schools increasingly recognise the right of access; this is healthier than trawling for 'the deprived', but both approaches can end in calculating success by means of a body-count. Right to access is clearly crucial, but anti-racism is a more complex process. In the Task Force Report, the chapter on education is excellent, clearly outlining the theory and practice of anti-racist intercultural education; but its recommendations are almost entirely addressed to the special needs of Travellers. I would argue that the issue of Travellers as a topic in the curriculum for all is not sufficiently addressed. Neither is the need for this 'topic' to be treated, not simply in itself as a separate entity, but as an integral part of the fabric of any discourse. So what might be called conceptual integration still can evade us.
Efforts to access pupils, and to celebrate their culture in their classrooms, may well be the first steps but they are not the most fundamental. I believe we need to start further back, and look at the whole issue of visibility of minorities in education at all levels, for all students. 'Traveller' is the name of a group entitled to equality of opportunity and to integration in our diverse society. It is also the name of a topic to be addressed in all classrooms whether Traveller students are there or not. A key principle is that a balanced education for everyone demands, as part of its basic framework, recognition of the status of minorities such as Travellers both as subjects and as topic. A look at what has happened in relation to anti-sexism illustrates this point: females were found to be discriminated against because they were barred from full access to a presumed neutral system. Gradually it was realised that what was being accessed was a male construct, and that it must be changed, not just because female experience must be reflected in the curriculum for women, but also because this construct is itself an inadequate frame for education for anyone. The need for anti-sexism policy does not vanish where there are no girls: it is not alright to crack sexist jokes, or to leave women out of history in all-boys' schools. Likewise minorities must be 'present' in all-majority schools. Despite its shortcomings, however, the Task Force Report provided substantial inspiration and validation for innovative work. Some teaching materials recently developed by the Blackrock Intercultural Committee (1994 - 1996),16 following the principle of interculturalism for all, are intended for use in any class whether or not there are Travellers present.
Anti-racism was discussed in other papers in this publication; I will concentrate on curriculum issues. Primary teachers are perforce generalists so I will comment on a number of areas (and anything that can be said about interculturalism in a primary classroom applies in a third level college). Ethnic identity, like any other, is fluid and (fortunately) the 'shape' of Travellers' ethnic identity is not easy to specify. Intercultural pedagogy recognises and celebrates this multi-faceted diversity in our teaching of all children. We must learn to make a shift in mindset, develop a readiness, not so much to teach people who they are, as to make space for people to say their name(s). There is enough data on Traveller culture to serve to open up that space in the classroom. Sometimes the shift required is simple, though profound. To pick a common theme: in discussing 'homes' - a common topic in social studies - we should allow for varieties of accommodation, and for changes in location.
Teachers need to ask: who decides what knowledge is valuable and should be taught? They need to realise that the knowledge that is taught is usually what the dominant class find useful, produce or patronise. Language is, of course, a key area. We have heard about the racist language we all unconsciously use and which we need to drop. We also need to sensitise ourselves to the varieties of human experience as they are embedded in language use. Children I teach habitually use a particular form of the verb 'to go: they say 'go on'. For instance, when asked where someone is they might say 'she's gone on to the hall', or 'X is gone on to town', or (if they don't know where to) 'she's gone on'. To 'go on' is to resume a journey: Travellers have centuries of sedimented experience of life as a journey. This historic nomadism has produced this trace in the children's language use. If we do not notice the presence of distinctive constructs in students' talk, we will not easily notice the absence of minority experience in texts. Such oblivion beset the editor of a classic poetry anthology used in primary classrooms, The Book of a Thousand Poems.17 I wanted a poem on nomadism or Traveller experience, so I looked in its exhaustive subject index for 'nomad'; 'Gypsy'; 'Traveller'. No luck. So I looked for less acceptable terms such as 'itinerant'. 'Travel' was there, but it referred to poems about explorers. I went through the book page by page and found thirty poems about Gypsies/Travellers, or in which images from Gypsy/Traveller life were invoked. Clearly, in drawing up a literature syllabus, we should include some texts which reflect nomadic experience.
In a paper to teachers on an in-career training course in art education, M. O'Reilly and I put forward some pointers in our effort to speak on how one incorporates Travellers into teaching about art. Not alone must we shed any assumption that teaching art is, in effect, training in appreciation of the received canon of the European fine arts, we must also question the assumed connection between creativity, personal expression and originality. Creativity can also be writing the signature of the tribe, as in motif art from many cultures, including women's traditional craft work. This is especially true for cultures in which the individual does not take priority over the group. We must open up our thinking to incorporate that kind of experience, to realise that there are other forms of expressing yourself, other ways of thinking. This raises questions about the private individualism of what we conventionally consider to be 'Art'.18
Finally, when studying history, we must include the history of minorities in themselves and in relation to wider society. We must question the assumption that society 'progressed' from nomadism to sedentarism, and that with this progress came high culture. History brings up the issue of justice in a special way, and here it is of crucial importance to take a larger view than chronicling racism, a mistake made in some anti-racist school texts in which 'look at what we/they did to them/us' is the theme. Critics of this approach such as McFadden,19 Gundara20 and Rizvi21 have pointed out that this approach shames the minority because even where it was true, it poses but ignores the question, why did they put up with it? The history of their achievements and of their resistance must also be taught. We must train teachers to constantly keep their own bias in critical view, to teach without a hidden agenda, whether of dominance or of revolution.
At all levels of our education system, the principle of integration must inform, not simply admissions policy, but also conceptualisation, curriculum, pedagogy, institutional ethos. If what we offer is integrated, reflects the whole of our society critically, positively celebrates diversity and challenges the dominant assumptions which maintain racism, then when minorities arrive on our doorsteps, they will find themselves already written into the learning environment. Then access and opportunity can be made truly equal, and the 'special needs' of any group will be pared back to their true extent - for example, all will already be learning about the historic role of Travellers in Ireland. The notion of a 'curriculum for Travellers' is conceptually false. Their special needs lie in the region of structurally produced learning difficulties; the appropriate response is celebration of the devalued identity, and ambitious well focused teaching of the core skills in particular, to empower the person to take on the challenge of the mainstream system.
Before discussing teacher training in general, I will briefly comment on one type of affirmative strategy. I have great reservations about the empowering value of alternative qualifications. Teachers from whatever background should be good enough to teach anyone, or they should not be teaching minorities. Otherwise, we slip into facile provision: members of minorities offered limited qualifications to teach their own people. Given the damage done by racism, even when institutions do operate equal access policies it will most likely be true that at least some of the oppressed will have to run where the dominant can walk. Their resilience to date proves they can do this. Because an inclusive education system will most likely always be something to be struggled for within an exclusionary society, the system, as well as reforming itself, must also offer skilled teaching to ensure that members of minorities can undo the effects of racism, reclaim their territory. Affirmative action is not a short cut.
In the course of my research, I interviewed the teachers to see what they were making of what was going on in their classrooms. I found that they operated competing models of Travellers. Because they were working with Travellers, they showed often a very subtle awareness of Travellers' distinct cultural identity, and used the term 'ethnic'; they also spoke about the appalling experiences of exclusion their pupils had to face in society. However, they were encountering children who were balking very hard at progress, and who had had very poor outcomes from their primary schooling. When discussing this performance, they also operated a deficit model of Travellers: they drew on the personalised and familial models of learning difficulties into which they were trained as teachers. There was a strong bias towards what Acker22 calls 'mothering discourse', strong on care and commitment, but weak on structural analysis. Training for them had not included anti-racist training and even though they spoke about racism and were keenly aware of and angry about it, their training had not equipped them to trace back classroom difficulties to structural factors. As already noted above, cultural awareness among teachers of Travellers has developed in an ad hoc fashion, filtering upwards from discussions in the field; gradually policy change has taken place. This parallels the situation in third level: changes in relation to equality issues in third level have also percolated upwards thanks to the activities of teachers at that level. I have to say that in my experience, our calls for pre-career training in anti-racism and interculturalism have not to date been very effectively heard. It is to be regretted that few teacher trainers were in attendance at this conference.
What should we aim for in teacher training? Folds studied the resistance practices of Aborigine children, and his findings were very disturbing and similar to my own.23 He speaks of the need for 'an ethical shift in mindset' on the part of education policy makers. Others argue that in the teacher's training and career, conversion may be too much to ask but we can and must insist on professional conduct.24 I would echo Stasia Crickley's remarks on behaviour modification: attitudes are strengthened through practice, through performance.25 If racist performances in essays, tutorials, examinations etc. are marked as unprofessional, those performances will be curtailed and that in turn should weaken the attitudes.
Educating the educators is not just a matter of changing or expanding the curriculum for trainee teachers. What about the trainers: who trains them? The needs of trainers and of their trainees are very similar but, to put it flippantly, the older the pupils we teach, the more important the job is deemed to be (per capita funding testifies to this) and the less training we get to do it. It is odd, and why as trainers do we put up with it? Some of the difficulty may lie in the unclarified relation between two kinds of expertise: that of knowledge and that of skill. We need both knowledge and skills expertise. At primary level, the old monitor system of pre-career teacher training was rightly rejected: teachers need theory because unless they understand the theoretical base of pedagogic methods, they may well fail to adapt or replace these methods soundly. However, from my own training, I will illustrate the limitations of knowledge alone as a trainer of teachers. We were sat in rows for inspiring lectures on active learning, and we were warned that when we went out into classrooms, we should guard against reverting to teaching as we had been taught ourselves in primary school - putting children in rows and teaching the class en masse. It might have been more correct to say we would continue what we experienced in the training college. If they wanted us to change our practice, they should have enabled us to experience a new practice, in our own learning in college. The model for training teachers will inform those future teachers' classrooms: setting students in benches and lecturing them about active learning is internally contradictory. So is offering modules on minorities and integration when these minorities are missing from or are stereotyped in other course modules. Which message will the student hear?
The complexity of the situation calls for trainer training. Lecturers in third level institutions, centres of learning, are experts in their subjects, but what training have they had in the skill of teaching? Imagine if expert adult educators/facilitators led tutorials, preferably in collaboration with experts in the subject of the tutorial. A reservoir of expertise in the skills of adult education is available in the domain of further education and training: mutual enrichment is possible if skills and knowledge expertise are pooled. To engage in intercultural anti-racist educational practice, a radical re-evaluation of the basis of what we teach is required. The whole team must reflect critically and synchronise their practice if they are to offer a more holistic world view, a consistent model of professional practice to their students.
To return to the 'ethical shift in mindset': A teacher from Northern Ireland26 told a story in a paper at a recent conference for teachers of Travellers, a story that exemplifies what should be the experience of every member of a minority who enrols in any educational institution at any level. A little Traveller girl came home after her day in school. She exclaimed excitedly "Mammy, I was in school today!" to which her mother replied that of course she was. The girl repeated with more emphasis, "No, I was in school today." Her mother realised she was missing the girl's meaning, and next day asked the teacher about it. It emerged that the child had at some point in the day taken a jig-saw and assembled it. On completing it, she found the picture was of children playing on a camp site: she found herself, her experience, included as normal in the learning materials in this new and strange classroom. All pupils should find it so; all should be able to say "I was in school today". They cannot if their experience is not reflected there before they ever arrive.
The ethical shift in mindset is about the education of everybody. If this honourable inclusion is practised, the child from a minority is affirmed, empowered to take what the system has to offer because the minority can own the discourse of the system: they find themselves already there conceptually and in text and image. Travellers do not need a special curriculum on their culture: all students need to find Traveller culture included in the curriculum as part of the fabric of human society. If education for all is transformed so that it includes all the varieties of human experience we know about (and takes on more as we discover them), then the needs of the minority will be pared back to their true extent and the context within which they can be respectfully addressed will be present. All students, especially those of the majority population, need to see the variety of society reflected positively in the learning environment. We must transform everything, and we must look at the very cultural ground we stand on and recognise its constructed nature. Teachers must be trained to realise that the body of knowledge we teach is not normal or natural; it is a cultural construct. We must shake the ground under our own feet. Teacher training should be about doing that with students and making sure they do that themselves before they get out of college. Even if it is only an 'as if' performance - acting as if they really believed it - maybe it will move them part of the way; and hopefully it will at least train them in appropriate performance for their professional futures.
To conclude: Irish society is becoming increasingly diverse with the arrival of immigrant groups, the emergence of minority voices, and the diversification of local populations. The challenge posed by Travellers to our traditionally monocultural education system, if met, will help to free us to educate this increasingly diverse society appropriately. Cultural celebration in the classroom is essential, as is challenging work particularly in the core subjects, if minority children are to be empowered to operate in schools with confidence in their identity and with the skills they need to succeed there. I believe that these objectives can be pursued in either separate or integrated provision, and furthermore that separate provision can provide research stations for the mainstream, and be a sort of leaven which can infuse the groups it serves with confidence and pride. Mainstream should be the norm, but wherever the student is taught, the system must be integrated conceptually, pedagogically and administratively, and the teachers must be well trained in anti-racist intercultural practice.
Acker, S. (ed.), Teachers, Gender and Careers; Falmer; London; 1989.
Acker, S (ed.), "Carry on Caring: the work of women teachers" in British Journal of Sociology of Education; Vol 16; No. 1.
Department of Education, Survey, by Primary School Inspectorate, of Traveller participation in education; Unpublished; 1988.
Department of Education, Páistí an Lucht Taistil: Dréacht Curaclam; Unpublished; 1985.
Department of Education, Committee Report: Educational Facilities for the Children of Itinerants; Stationery Office; Dublin; 1970.
Department of Education, Curaclam na Bunscoile; Stationery Office; Dublin; 1970.
Department of the Environment, Report of the Task Force on the Travelling Community; Stationery Office; Dublin; 1995.
Department of the Environment, Report of the Travelling People Review Body; Stationery Office; Dublin; 1983.
Department of Social Welfare, Report of the Commission on Itinerancy; Stationery Office; Dublin; 1963.
DeVos, G., "Selective Permeability and Reference Group Sanctioning: Psychocultural Continuities in Role Degradation" in Major Social Issues: a Multidisciplinary View, J.M. Yinger and G. Eaton (eds.); Free Press; New York; 1978.
Eastwood, N., at the Spring Conference of the Association of teachers of Travelling People; 1994.
Folds, R., Whitefella School: Education and Aboriginal Resistance; Allen & Unwin Australia; Sydney; 1987.
Gundara, G. and Jones C., "Teacher Training and Anti-Racism" in Education Provision for Traveller and Refugee Children: Promoting Achievement: Seminar Report, M. Kenny (Rapporteur); Council of Europe; Strasbourg; Publication pending.
Gundara, J., "Values, National Curriculum and Diversity in British Society" in Assessing the National Curriculum, P. O'Hear and J. White (eds.); Paul Chapman Ltd; London; 1993.
Gundara, J., "Lessons from History for Black Resistance in Britain" in Race, Migration and Schooling, J. Tierney (ed.); Holt Education; London; 1982.
Harris, H. W., "Introduction: A Conceptual Overview of Race, Ethnicity and Identity" in Racial and Ethnic Identity: Psychological Development and Creative Expression, H.W. Harris, H. C. Blue and E.H. Griffith (eds.); Routledge; London; 1995.
Irish National Teachers' Organisation, Travellers in Education; INTO; Dublin; 1992.
Irish Traveller Movement, Travellers and Education; ITM; Dublin; 1993.
Kenny, M., The Routes of Resistance: Travellers and Second Level Schooling; PhD Thesis; Trinity College Dublin; Ashgate Publishing; England; 1997.
Kenny, M., "Interculturalism & Europe's Nomads" in Teacher Education in the Nineties: towards a New Coherence (Vol. 2), J.Coolahan (ed.); Mary Immaculate College, for the Asssociation for Teacher Education in Europe; Limerick; 1991.
Maw, J., "Reality and Interpretation: Teaching Art in Africa" in Intercultural Perspectives on Culture and Schooling, E. Thomas (ed.); Institute of Education, University of London; London; 1994.
McFadden, M.G., "Resistance to Schooling and Educational Outcomes: questions of structure and agency" in British Journal of Sociology of Education; Vol.16, No.3: 293-308; 1995.
Murray MacBain, J. (ed.), The Book of 1,000 Poems; Collins; London; 1994.
O'Reilly, M. and Kenny, M. (eds.), "Black Stones Around the Green Shamrock: A Poetry Anthology by and about Travellers; Blackrock Teachers' Centre; Dublin; 1994.
O'Reilly, M., With Travellers: A Handbook for Teachers; Blackrock Teachers Centre; Dublin; 1993.
Rizvi, F., "Race, gender and the cultural assumptions of schooling" in The New Politics of Race and Gender; C. Marshall (ed.); Falmer; Lewes; 1994.
Willis, P., Learning to Labour; Gower; Hampshire; 1977.
1: M. Kenny, The Routes of Resistance: Travellers and Second Level Schooling; PhD Thesis; Trinity College Dublin; Ashgate Publishing; England; 1997. Return to Main Text
M. Kenny, "Interculturalism and Europe's Nomads" in Teacher Education in the Nineties: towards a New Coherence, Vol. 2, J. Coolahan (ed.); Mary Immaculate College; Limerick; for the Association for Teacher Education in Europe; 1991a.
2: Department of Social Welfare, Report of the Commission on Itinerancy; Stationery Office; Dublin; 1963.Return to Main Text
3: Department of Education; Committee Report: Educational Facilities for the Children of Itinerants; Stationery Office; Dublin; 1970.Return to Main Text
4: Department of Education, Curaclam na Bunscoile; Stationery Office, Dublin; 1970.Return to Main Text
5: Department of Education, Survey of Traveller Participation in Education; by Primary School Inspectorate; (Unpublished); 1988.Return to Main Text
6: Department of the Environment, Report of the Task Force on the Travelling Community; Stationery Office; Dublin; 1995.Return to Main Text
7: Department of the Environment, Report of the Travelling People Review Body; Stationery Office; Dublin; 1983.Return to Main Text
8: Department of Education, Páistí an Lucht Taistil: Dréacht Curaclam; (Unpublished); 1985.Return to Main Text
9: Irish Traveller Movement, Travellers and Education; ITM; Dublin; 1993.Return to Main Text
10: Irish National Teachers' Organisation, Travellers in Education; INTO; Dublin; 1992.Return to Main Text
11: All Irish Schools.Return to Main Text
12: P Willis, Learning to Labour; Gower; Hampshire; 1977.Return to Main Text
13: G DeVos, "Selective Permeability and Reference Group Sanctioning: Psychocultural Continuities in Role Degradation" in Major Social Issues: a Multidisciplinary View, J.M. Yinger and G. Eaton (eds.); Free Press; New York; 1978.Return to Main Text
14: H.W. Harris, "Introduction: A Conceptual Overview of Race, Ethnicity and Identity" in Racial and Ethnic Identity: Psychological Development and Creative Expression, H.W. Harris, H.C. Blue and E.H. Griffith (eds.); Routledge; London; 1995.Return to Main Text
15: Report of the Task Force on the Travelling Community; op. cit.Return to Main Text
16: For instance: M. O'Reilly, With Travellers: A Handbook for Teachers; Blackrock Teachers' Centre; Dublin; 1993. M. O'Reilly and M. Kenny, (eds.), Black Stones Around the Green Shamrock: A Poetry Anthology by and about Travellers; Blackrock Teachers' Centre; Dublin; 1994.Return to Main Text
17: J. Murray MacBain, (ed), The Book of 1,000 Poems; Collins; London; 1994.Return to Main Text
18: J. Maw, "Reality and Interpretation: Teaching Art in Africa" in Intercultural Perspectives on Culture and Schooling, E. Thomas (ed.); Institute of Education, University of London; London; 1994.Return to Main Text
19: M.G. McFadden, "Resistance to Schooling and Educational Outcomes: Questions of Structure and Agency" in British Journal of Sociology of Education, Vol. 16; No. 3; 1995. PP. 293-308.Return to Main Text
20: J. Gundara, "Lessons from History for Black Resistance in Britain" in Race, Migration and Schooling, J. Tierney (ed.); Holt Education; London; 1982.Return to Main Text
J. Gundara, "Values, National Curriculum and Diversity in British Society" in Assessing the National Curriculum, P. O'Hear and J. White (eds.); Paul Chapman Ltd.; London; 1993.
21: F. Rizvi, "Race, gender and the Cultural Assumptions of Schooling" in The New Politics of Race and Gender; Falmer; Lewes; 1994.Return to Main Text
22: S. Acker, (ed.), Teachers, Gender and Careers; Falmer, London; 1989.Return to Main Text
S. Acker, "Carry on Caring: the Work of Women Teachers" in British Journal of Sociology of Education; Vol. 16, No. 1; 1995. PP. 21-36.
23: R. Folds, Whitefella School: Education and Aboriginal Resistance; Allen & Unwin Australia; Sydney; 1987.Return to Main Text
24: G. Gundara and C. Jones, "Teacher Training and Anti-Racism" in Education Provision for Traveller and Refugee Children: Promoting Achievement: Seminar Report, M. Kenny (Rapporteur); Council of Europe; Strasbourg; Publication pending; 1995.Return to Main Text
25: Stasia Crickley, "Access, Participation and Outcomes", paper delivered at HEEU Conference on Minority Ethnic Groups in Higher Education in Ireland; St. Patrick's College, Maynooth; 27th September 1996.Return to Main Text
26: N. Eastwood, Spring Conference of the Association of Teachers of Travelling People; 1994.Return to Main Text