|
FR4202: Structure and varieties of contemporary French |
[ FR4202 home | Department of French | Subject resources | Teaching materials | Search ]
Traditional grammar is the one that has given us the parts of speech, conjugations and declensions. It has been in use among people describing natural languages in western Europe for about 2000 years. Much of its attention over this time has been devoted to description of the sentence. As it pursued this goal it developed a terminology which we still use. A problem however is inconsistency in use of different terms. This inconsistency was something inevitable in a process that went on for such a long time and whose epistemological and pedagogical purposes varied so much from practitioner to practitioner. A French linguist examining the notion of grammar once remarked that every manual of traditional grammar was liable to be caught between three confllicting purposes: to describe language as it is, to distinguish correct linguistic usage from incorrect usage and to serves as a means of learning a language. If you look at the content and discourse of any of the manuals of French grammar that came into your hands you will easily find evidence of this triple purpose.
The word sentence/phrase is one that you have all heard. It refers to a reality that you would generally feel confident of recognizing. You have an intuition of what sentence is.
Western reflexion on language has always paid particular attention to the description of sentences. Aristotle [384-322 B.C.] describes "statement-making" sentences. Dionysius Thrax defines a sentence as a statement expressing a complete thought. [c. 100 B.C. He also defined parts of speech. See Writing French]. This particular definition - "the complete expresssion of a single thought" - has served many of us well in the classroom down to the contemporary period.
One can ask why one should set about the task of describing the sentence when one sets about describing language. One reason for the attention given to the sentence by linguists is the central role that it plays in communication. 'Der Satz scheint, wie viele empirische Befunde fnahelegen, nicht nur für die Organisation des Denkens eine Rolle zu spielen aber auch für die des Kommunizierens' [Danes/Viehweger, Ebene der Textstruktur 199]. Another is that once you go beyond the sentence you get into the field of discourse and text construction and that these realities are not governed by the laws of syntax. Language as used in spoken and written communication seems to be made up of units distinguishible from each other, not contained within each other, and within the boundaries of which fundamental grammatical relationships occur. In discourse we find sequences of words that are independent of each other and that can "stand on their own as utterances". [Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language] We call such units sentences. Linguists find it quite hard to define the sentence in a uniform way. At the same time most users of language have little difficulty in agreeing that some sequences of words are sentences and that others are not.
Syntax is the study of grammatical relationships within a a sentence. It is "the way in which words are arranged to show relationships of meaning within sentences" [Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language]. Another definition is "The study of grammatical relationships between words and other units within the sentence." [Matthews, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics] What we see below will begin to help us understand what these relationships are.
# A sentence may be defined, and has often been defined, as a sequence of words showing a subject/sujet [what is being spoken about] and a predicate/ prédicat [what is being said about the subject]. This definition originally comes from logic. One consequence of this non-linguistic origin is that the definition may not always suit the sentence being described. Generally the subject will take the form of a noun and gramatically related words [noun group/groupe du nom] and the predicate the form of a verb and gramatically related words [verb group/ groupe du nom]. Here are a number of sentences written by Simone de Beauvoir as she communicates with the readers of Tout compte fait.
Chaque matin, avant même d'ouvrir les yeux, je reconnais mon lit, ma chambre. [11]
La première est évidemment celle de ma naissance. [13]
A présent, cependant, mon univers n'a cessé de s'agrandir. [53]
Elle semblait ne pas avoir de problèmes personnels. [85]
Consisting of one subject and one predicate all the above sentences are simple sentences/phrases simples. Now as we have seen in Writing French several sentences may be strung together to form a larger sentence. When they become constituents of a larger sentence, groups of words showing a subject and a predicate are referred to as clauses/ propositions.
& One way of stringing clauses together as constituents of a larger sentence is just to write one of them alongside the other one between a capital letter to the left and a full stop [point] to the right. This way of stringing clauses together lets each clause retain a comparable amount of informational independence. Examples from Tout compte fait are:
La musique provoquait en elle des émotions qui surmenaient son coeur: elle fut plusieurs fois au bord d'une crise. [133]
Le soir tombait sur une ville de province, il faisait doux. [155]
En 68, ses vertiges se firent de plus en plus fréquents: il lui arrivait de tomber dans sa chambre. [133]
Femme, j'ai voulu élucider ce qu'est la condition féminine; aux approches de la vieillesse, j'ai eu envie de savoir comment se définit la condition des vieillards. [183]
A second way of stringing clauses together is to place a connective belonging to the small set et, mais, car, puis, ou, ni between two of them. This way of stringing clauses together lets each clause retain a comparable amount of informational independence. You will find vast numbers of them in Tout compte fait. Examples are:
Il parlait avec des gens qu'il ne connaissait pas et il disparaissait. [147]
Elles se taisaient mais leur présence était si pesante que nous sommes partis presque tout de suite. [369]
This way of stringing clauses together is called coordination.
A third way of stringing clauses together is to place a connective belonging to the very large set that includes among many others qui, que, dont, où, ce qui, ce que, quand, si, parce que, pour que, alors que, quoique, sans que, au point que, à tel point que, si bien que, du moment où, dès que between two of them or before the one written first. This way of stringing clauses together limits the informational independence of one of the clauses. The clause whose informational independence has been limited is called a subordinate clause [proposition] subordonnée, and the clause whose informational independence has not been limited is called a main clause/ proposition principale. In other words such sentences are made up of a main clause, and of a subordinate clause whose meaning is considered to be in some way dependent on the meaning of the main clause. Subordinate clauses/ [propositions] subordonnées are found in the following sentences of Tout compte fait
Maintenant, sans que j'aie retrouvé beaucoup de sympathie pour mes compatriotes, leur présence ne m'oppresse plus. [308]
D'emblée un ouvrage m'attire s'il répond à des questions que je me pose. Quand je prépare un voyage, je m'interroge sur le pays que je vais voir et je cherche à me documenter sur lui. Lorsque j'ai travaillé sur la vieillesse, j'ai compulsé avec ardeur des études de gérontologie qui m'auraient ennuyée, un an plus tôt. [197]
Il fallait partir, ce qui me désespérait. [143]
This way of stringing clauses together is called subordination.
Subordination is a characteristic of written French texts belonging to different text types. It presents itself as the means of achievement of a number of communicative effects that are judged to be essential by many producers of written texts. [You will note that it is a characteristic of the discourse of Tout compte fait]. Sentences showing a main clause/ proposition principale and one or more subordinate clauses/ [propositions] subordonnées are called complex sentences/ phrases complexes.
# On the basis of their syntactic relationship to the main clause, subordinate clauses have been traditionally classified into three groups.
& One group is considered to have an adverbial meaning in relation to the main clause. An adverbial meaning is the expression of the circumstances surrounding an action or state. Such clauses are called adverbial clauses/ [propositions] circonstancielles. The sequences of words in italics in the sentences below taken from Tout compte fait are adverbial clauses/ [propositions] circonstancielles.
Quand a paru mon essai, La Vieillesse, quelques critiques, quelques lecteurs m'ont reproché de n'avoir pas parlé de ma vieillesse. [9]
Même si ses réflexions l'y incitent, un prêtre répugnera à rompre avec sa vie passée. [630]
S'il a le sens de la mort, du mystère, du tragique, cela se retourne aussi contre lui. [632]
Tandis que nous dînions, en buvant du vin blanc, un groupe de touristes s'est installé à une autre table, et ils se sont mis à chanter en allemand. [448]
& One group is considered to have an adjectival meaning in relation to the main clause. An adjectival meaning is the expression of a quality attached to a noun. Such clauses are called adjectival clauses/[propositions] relatives. Their first word will be one of the connectives of the set that includes qui, que, dont, où, à qui, de qui. The sequences of words in italics in the sentences below taken from Tout compte fait are adjectival clauses/ [propositions] relatives.
Les auteurs que j'ai lus récemment manquaient de fantaisie. [236]
Et puis, coupés de leurs racines, les objets qui s'y exhibent perdent beaucoup de leur prix. [275]
Le lieu où se déroule l'action me dépayse tout en éveillant en moi des réminiscences. [216]
& One group is considered to have a noun meaning in relation to the main clause. A noun meaning is the expression of a something that could act as subject or object of a verb. Such clauses are called noun clauses/[propositions] complétives. Their first word will be the connective que. The sequences of words in italics in the sentences below taken from Le Monde are noun clauses/ [propositions] complétives.
Cela n'a pas empêché qu'après quelques jours de débats parlementaire une controverse s'ouvre au sein de la confédération libérale. [2.12.1997]
Le président rappelle que le mot << ratonnade >> a été employé à plusieurs reprises. [28.11.1997]
La préfecture du Rhône a annoncé, samedi 6 décembre, que toutes les mesures seront prises pour préserver la paix publique à Saint-Priest. [7/8.12.97]
Here is one from Tout compte fait.
Nasser estima cependant qu'elle confirmait ses soupçons. [547]
# Adverbial clauses are further grouped into a number of sub-categories. This is done on the basis of their meaning and of the connectives that make up their first word or words. Traditional French grammar identifies seven such sub-categories of adverbial clauses/[propositions circonstancielles]. They are: [propositions]
- temporelles/time [to the right of, among others, the connectives quand, avant que, après que, lorsque, au moment où, en même temps que, aussi longtemps que, à mesure que, toutes les fois que, chaque fois que ]
consécutives/consequence [to the right of, among others, the connectives si bien que, trop/assez/trop peu ... pour que, de manière à ce que, au point que, au point où, à tel point que]
causales/cause [to the right of, among others, the connectives parce que, comme, du moment que, maintenant que, étant donné que, puisque, comme]
finales/purpose [to the right of, among others, the connectives pour que, afin que, de manière à ce que,]
conditionnelles/condition [to the right of, among others, the connectives si, à la condition que, à moins que, au cas où, pourvu que]
concessives/concessive [to the right of, among others, the connectives quoique, bien que, même si, si, alors que, tandis que]
comparatives/comparative [to the right of, among others, the connectives comme, de même que, tel... que, le même ... que, aussi... que, si... que, autant... que, plus ... que, moins... que]
Grammar today distinguishes three types of sentence in function of their modality/ modalité [here defined as a particular relationship established between the speaker and the person being addressed]. This concept of modality made its way from logic into grammar. The current distinction of three types of sentence has been much influenced by speech act theory, and by communicative approaches to language use. These identify three fundamental speech acts: to assert [to state that, to affirm, to declare], to request [to order], to question, each of which corresponds to a distinct communicative function.
In the light of this and taking account of the insights of both traditions [grammar and linguistics] we will identify three fundamental types of sentence:
§ assertif/ assertive [déclaratif/declarative]
§ interrogatif/ interrogative
§ impératif/imperative
These types are mutally exclusive. Each one of them shows distinct features of syntax, morphology, intonation and order of words.
& the assertif/assertive [déclaratif/declarative] type asserts something.
- It shows the canonical order of words subject/ verb and complements of the verb.
- It is the type that is most frequently used in discourse and the one that grammar since Aristotle has most studied. If you read only manuals of grammar you might sometimes think that it was the only type of sentence around. The great majority of the sentences in Tout compte fait are déclaratifs.
Mais quand je vais à l'étranger je voyage la plupart du temps en avion. [341]
& the interrogatif/interrogative asks a question.
- In written French it is followed by a point d'interrogation/ question mark and in spoken French it has a particular intonation.
- In written French it will generally invert the canonical order of words subject/ verb and complements of the verb:
Si ç'avait été un garçon, les choses auraient-elles tourné autrement pour moi? [18]
D'où m'est-elle venue au juste? [19]
Comment aurais-je évolué si je n'avais pas rencontré Sartre? [33]
In spoken French an interrogatif nearly always shows the canonical order of words.
[Taking the same form as a déclaratif, or showing the string of words est-ce que at the left of the sentence].
& the impératif/imperative orders, requests or politely asks someone to do something.
- In spoken French it has a particular intonation.
Sortez.
Filons.
Amène-moi au village.
Tenez-le bien.
Vite, dépêche-toi.
Veuillez vous dépêcher.
§ French grammar also distinguishes a fourth type of sentence but does not consider it to be a fundamental type corresponding to specific speech act. It is seen as a type that is superimposed on one of the three fundamental types. Its relationship to the fundamental types and to other types is the object of some continuing discussions among grammarians.
& This is the exclamatif/ exclamative. Its modality is a marked emotional attitude of the writer or speaker towards the subject matter of the sentence. It can take a wide range of syntactic and morphological forms.
- In written French it is followed by a point d'exclamation/ exclamation mark and in spoken French it has a particular intonation. In spoken French this intonation is sometimes the only specifying mark of the exclamatif.
- sometimes it takes the form of a déclaratif/declarative with the canonical order of words, sometimes that of interrogatif/ interrogative.
- there are not many exclamatifs to be found in Tout compte fait.
<< Quelle belle journée ce serait, si c'était un dimanche! >> [Tcf 251]
<< Pauvre M. Sartre! il y a deux ans c'était l'O.A.S! Maintenant le Nobel! on ne le laissera jamais tranquille. >>
[Tcf 64]
Comme Moscou était gaie sous la neige et le ciel bleu! [Tcf 394]
I found the following in a book on French politics [D. Jeambar. Un secret d'Etat]
Tout Jacques Chirac est là!
Quel malentendu!
Et cela marche!
Il s'est tant accroché à Chirac pour arriver là où il est!
These are further examples [here you notice the words ce que, comme, quellle]
Qu'est-ce que je suis bête!
Ce que je suis bête!
Comme il est têtu!
Quelle surprise!
Il est fou!
Comme elle a grandi!
Qu'est-ce que cela pouvait m'ennuyer!
You will note again that the identification by grammar of the three fundamental types of sentence
- déclaratif/declarative
- interrogatif/interrogative
- impératif/imperative
corresponds to some degree to types of act identified as being performed by the production of a sentence. This is a pragmatic criterion. [Pragmatics can be defined here as the study of the meanings that sentences have in particular contexts in which they are uttered or as the study of the rules and principles which govern language in use as opposed to the abstract, idealized rules of, for instance, grammar [Malmkjaer, K. 1991]
An authoritative French manual of grammar [Riegel, Grammaire méthodique du Français] proposes the following classification of types of sentence.
|
assertif/ interrogatif/ impératif |
|
positif / négatif [presence of forms of negation: see fiche distributed for module fr4101] |
|
exclamatif |
# French traditional grammarians describing French often have recourse to the notion of fonction/function. Like many other terms used in traditional grammar the word fonction/ function is sometimes used ambiguously. [For a devastating critique of the notion of fonction grammaticale to which the French school system attaches considerable importance see Wilmet, M. Grammaire critique du français, 466]. What I am giving here is a recent presentation of the problem. [Riegel, M. 1994. Grammaire méthodique du français]. This presentation identifies four primary functions:
- sujet/subject,
- verbe/verb,
- complément du verbe/ complement of the verb,
- complément circonstanciel/ adverbial.
Riegel [who is well aware of the inconsistencies in the various definitions offered of the fonctions grammaticales] says a certain number of things about each of these fonctions/ functions. He is well aware of the heterogeneity of his criteria of identification.
The sujet/subject
# it what is being spoken about in the rest of the sentence
# is generally distributed to the left of the verb,
# governs the number/nombre [singular or plural] and
person/personne [first, second or third] of the tense form.
# is the only element of the sentence that can be extracted
and presented by the expression C'est... qui
# is often a noun or pronoun
In the sentences below the sujet/subject is in italics:
La question resta en suspens. [tcf 190]
Même ainsi réduite, cette curiosité n'est pas toujours facile à satisfaire. [tcf 310]
The verbe/verb
# can be identified as the relevant part of speech in a personal form [one in front of which one could write one of the pronouns je/tu il/elle nous/vous ils/elles]
# is generally the pivot of a group of words. [The influential French linguist, the late Lucien Tesnière makes every other word in the sentence dependent on the verb].
The complément du verbe/ complement of the verb
# can be the complément d'object direct/ direct object.
- The complément d'object direct will generally be a noun and will generally occur to the right of the verb:
Deux jours plus tard j'ai encore fait un rêve de voyage. [tcf 151]
When it is a pronoun it will occur to the left of the verb:
Sartre m'a ramenée à Paris le lendemain dans une ambulance qui roulait à 140 à l'heure. [tcf 340]
# can be the complément d'object indirect/ indirect object.
- The complément d'object indirect will generally to the right of the verb
- it generally takes the form of a preposition and a noun [groupe prépositionnel/prepositional group]
- the preposition which is its first word is often à or de
- in a sentence the complément d'object indirect in the form of a preposition and a noun cannot be moved from this position immediately to the right of the verb
J'ai renoncé à tout souci esthétique. [tcf162]
Elle se rendait compte aujourd'hui de ses erreurs passées. [tcf402]
Les ouvriers s'attaquent aux jaunes. [tcf252]
Il rêve d'une existence sans consigne. [tcf217]
Je ne parlerai pas ici de tous ceux qui pendant ces dix dernières années m'ont retenue. [tcf216]
The complément circonstanciel/ adverbial
- generally takes the form of a preposition and a noun [groupe prépositionnel/prepositional group]
- when removed does not turn the sentence into a non-sentence [unlike the sujet/subject and the verbe/verb]
- can have more than one realization [groupe prépositionnel or circonstancielle]
- can occupy a number of positions in the sentence [this is an important criterion of its differentiation from the complément d'object indirect.
Nous marchions à petits pas sur le boulevard Raspail, nous déjeunions dans des brasseries du quartier. [tcf 69]
Par téléphone, nous nous sommes donné rendez-vous chez moi: elle habitait chez son beau-frère, à moins de cent mètres. J'ai attendu son coup de sonnette avec un peu d'appréhension.
[tcf 68]
En 68 a eu lieu à l'Orangerie une grande exposition de ses oeuvres. [tcf 127]
Le livre parut peu après mon retour de vacances, en automne. [tcf 162]
A chacun de nos séjours nous dînions deux ou trois fois chez les Cathala. [tcf 389]
Traditional French school grammar identifies a number of other fonctions grammaticales with which we need not concern us here. Some of them designate words or groups of words that like the complément du verbe/ complement of the verb and complément circonstanciel/ adverbial described above depend on the prior presence in the sentence of another word or group of words. You will note that traditional French grammar's analysis of the fonctions grammaticales sees the constituent parts of the sentence as being generally groups of words. Next week when we will look at Noam Chomsky's analysis of the sentence, we will see that his phrase structure grammar is developed to account for our intuition that words in a sentence fall into different groups.
[ FR4202 home | Department of French | Subject resources | Teaching materials | Search ]